35 mm. motor-drive Nikon, 16 mm. Bolex movie camera, VHS camcorder, DVD palmcorder.

All cameras do the same job. They capture light reflected from objects and record it chemically on film, electronically on video-tape, or digitally on tape, disc, or micro-chips.

Motion picture and video cameras differ from still cameras in that they record many more pictures per second. When these pictures are played back at the same rate they were recorded, they create the illusion of realistic motion.

Motion pictures are recorded at 24 frames per second (fps) while video is recorded at 30 fps. If either one is played back faster than its recorded rate, the result will be fast motion; slower and we get a slow motion effect.

We see film and video motion from a series of still images because of a biological process called "Persistence of Vision." Before the first image (frame) you see fades away from the optical network in your brain, it is replaced by the second superimposed over the first so we see the two images as continuous action rather than as separate pictures.

Exposure: To get a properly recorded video image, you must control the amount of light coming into the camera through the lens. Too little, and your picture will be dark and full of video noise (grainy with little red, blue, and green dots). Too much, and it will be washed out and grey.

Whether automatic or manual, it is the aperture (the opening in the center of the camera lens) which controls the amount of light entering the camera. The bigger the opening, the more light allowed through the lens.

The lens aperture (opening) is adjusted either automatically by an electronic circuit inside the camera or manually by changing the exposure setting on the lens barrel.

The numbers on the exposure ring are called f/stops. The simple way to understand how they work is to think of them as fractions with the f/number on the bottom and 1 on top: f2 = 1/2, f4 = 1/4, f8 = 1/8. Since 1/2 is bigger than 1/8 it's easy to see that a lens opening of f2 is going to let in more light than f8.

Most consumer camcorders, don't have manual f/stop controls. This means you can't get the proper exposure when there are large differences between the white and black areas in your shot.

This difference in "contrast ratios" fools the camcorder's exposure setting and gives poor results. The sensing circuit cannot deal with big differences between bright and dark. It chooses one extreme or the other depending on where you aim the light sensor. You can see the effect of camera placement in the viewfinder. Moving the camera a few inches can give the right exposure setting for your subject.

The Camera Lens: Just as f-stops measure exposure level, it is lens length that defines an image's size, apparent depth and proportion.

Every video lens has a length which gives what we think of as a normal view; a picture closest to the size, point-of-view and proportion of the image your eyes see from the camera's POV.

Any lens setting shorter than "normal" (less than 50mm.) creates a wide angle view and a greater sense of depth. A lens length setting longer than "normal" (more than 50 mm.) makes an image that is narrow in view and flattened in depth.

There are two ways to change the length of a camera lens. You can use different lenses of varying lengths (wide angle, normal, telephoto) or one zoom lens which adjusts from short to long for an infinite range of wide angle to telephoto.

A setting longer or shorter than normal effects your image in predictable ways. The table below shows the results of setting the zoom length at its extreme short or long position.

WIDE ANGLE	TELEPHOTO
Broad view	Narrow view
Smaller image	Larger image
Good for close shooting	Good for distant shooting
Deep depth of field	Shallow depth of field
Increase object speed towards camera	Decrease object speed to camera
Minimizes camera shake	Maximizes camera shake

For example, to make a car look like it is moving faster than it is towards the camera, use the wide angle setting. On the other hand, if you want to slow down the car's apparent speed, use the telephoto setting.

Let's say you need to shoot a group of people, some near the camera, some further away. If you wanted them to all be in focus, you could increase the depth of field by choosing the wide angle setting. However, if you wanted only those close to the camera to be in focus, (shallow depth of field) choose the telephoto position.

The range of a zoom lens is expressed as a ratio between the extreme telephoto and wide angle settings. A 12:1 zoom ratio means the telephoto picture is 12 times larger than the wide angle image.

Focus: Your brain is the best autofocus mechanism ever invented. Despite advertising claims, there is no electronic camera system that is as precise and controllable. You can use autofocus to make sure your image is crisp or for a visual effect, but under normal shooting conditions make sure it's turned off.

Don't use autofocus because:

the constant focusing adjustment drains the battery.

focus will unpredictably shifts if elements in your image move.

you can't shoot through windows, fences, trees, fabric, mirror shots, etc. Focus will shift constantly between the foreground image and the background action.

Focus manually for maximum control. What you see in the viewfinder is what you get (WYSIWYG). If your image is out of focus during shooting, it won't look better during playback.

To focus a zoom lens:

Adjust the lens to the full telephoto position so the subject looks as big as possible in the viewfinder.

Turn the lens focus ring till the subject is in focus in the viewfinder.

Zoom out to compose your shot and create a point-of-view.

If you try to focus in the wide angle setting, you will see little difference in the viewfinder because the wide angle setting creates a long depth-of-field.

Unless you have "pre-focused" on your subject in full telephoto position, you will not be able to zoom in from the wide angle to the telephoto setting without losing focus because the telephoto setting creates a short depth of field.

Depth of Field (DOF): is the distance in front and behind your subject that is in sharp focus. There is always less DOF in front of your subject than behind it. Do not confuse DOF with the "illusion of depth."

These factors can increase or decrease depth of field to enhance the visual impact of your videography.

Making Images with Visual Impact: When you point a camera in any direction, you put a frame around a specific part of the scene recording some elements and not others.

Put an object or person in the viewfinder frame and it becomes important to your audience. Leave out an item, and it will never exist for your viewers.

Composing a shot tells your viewer you believe one part of the scene is more important than other possibilities. A creative videographer considers all the visual elements in the viewfinder frame and asks how each will effect the audience's interpretation of the scene.

To begin thinking about composition, remember that while you live through the experience, camcorder in hand, you react to all the different levels of stimulation: sight, sound, smell, touch, and taste. No matter how good your technique, your video record of the event only stimulates a viewer's sight and hearing; a small part of the event.

This is your challenge as a videographer. You must learn to use the limited resources of video and audio to communicate what you were feeling and thinking about the events while trying to capture that reality electronically.

How close your audience comes to sharing your vision of the reality you capture on videotape or film depends on your technical skills and your mastery of the art of visual communications.

Shooting Without a Tripod: Before you begin to think about the creative content of your video, you must make sure your images are in sharp focus and there is no accidental camera movement.

Sharp focus is guaranteed by following the steps outlined above. Camera shake, on the other hand, can be a serious problem even for experienced videographers when they shoot without a tripod.

All camera manuals and video textbooks insist a tripod is essential to get steady video images. However a tripod's weight and bulkiness hinders the visual creative freedom enjoy using lightweight, portable camcorders.

Tripods are used in controlled shooting environments such as advertising productions, instructional demonstrations, speeches or other public presentations -- settings where you aren't shooting spontaneously to capture un-repeatable, unpredictable action.

Hand-held videography is perfect for spontaneous, unpredictable events: news, sports, music performances, demonstrations, parades, birthday parties, and weddings where a tripod cramps your freedom to capture the event from different points-of-view.

Learning to shoot without a tripod is like learning to drive a stick-shift car even though most autos are equipped with automatic transmissions. Good hand-held technique will dramatically improve your tripod shooting while greatly increasing your shooting options.

Hand Held Techniques: To insure steady images with a hand held camera:

Set the lens at the maximum wide angle position

Set lens focus at 5-7 ft.

The wide lens position and focus setting gives you maximum DOF with sharp focus from about 18 inches in front of the camera lens to infinity in bright sunlight. This range guarantees sharp focus no matter how close or far away you are from the subject.

These techniques will keep you from zooming into the action with a telephoto lens. These techniques force you to shoot from different angles and positions; a benefit you will appreciate when you edit your footage.

The wide angle setting also forces you to move the camera closer to the subject for medium and closeup shots. You will automatically end up with a greater variety of shots to use during editing.

If you must use a hand-held telephoto shot, find an improvised support to keep the camera steady. Lean against a wall, chair, or car. Prop the camera on the ground, a table or bookcase. If you can't keep the image steady in your viewfinder, you are wasting shooting and battery time.

Rule of Thirds: In the early days of painting, an unknown artist stumbled upon an exciting principle of good composition. The rule he developed will make your pictures more attractive and alluring to your viewers.

As you will see in the videotape accompanying this textbook, mentally superimpose a tic-tac-toe box over the image in the viewfinder. Move the camera until one of the image's important parts line up at one of the four points where the lines cross.

For example, if the subject's eyes subject are the most important part of your picture, zoom in and focus to insure sharpness. Then, no matter whether you choose a wide angle or telephoto view, tilt up or down until the eyes are even with the top one-third horizontal line. This gives a more pleasing, inviting composition within the frame.

The Rule of Thirds avoids compositions where all the elements are perfectly balanced (symmetrical balance). Unbalanced asymmetrical balance) composition creates a visual sense of visual motion; an effect that makes the most ordinary object such as a chair or soda visually exciting.

An excellent way to learn this basic rule of composition is to study TV programs, paintings, photographs, posters, and feature films to see how the Rule of Thirds is applied to a variety of subjects.

Remember, you can't force viewers to look at your images. Good composition is a powerful technique that encourages them to look at your work even if they have no interest in your chosen subject.

Nose Room: A video portrait can be ruined by not leaving enough room between the person's face and the edge of the frame when she looks to one side or the other.

Compose the image so the subject's nose is squashed against the frame edge, and she seems to be staring into a wall; a most uncomfortable visual situation for both the subject and the viewer.

Psychologically, viewers are more relaxed when there is empty space (nose room) between your subject's face and the frame. By framing either right or left, depending on the subject's position, your final picture will be more visually pleasing.

The "nose room" concept also applies to objects. If you are shooting a car, truck or anything that has a definable front and back, make sure its "nose" is not slammed tight against the frame.

Leaving space between the object and the frame is especially important when the subject is moving across the your field of view at a right angle.

For example, if a person/object moves frame left to right, it looks better to leave space in front of the movement, on the right side of the frame, to give the person/object a visual destination. "Nose room" is not a problem when the person or object is facing directly towards or away from the camera.

Colour: The most important thing to remember about colour is that your viewer's attention is drawn to the most colourful areas of the scene.

For example, if you shoot an interview with a Butte College instructor standing in front of a crowd of students including a young man wearing a bright yellow shirt, your audience will spend more time looking at him than the instructor.

To avoid visual distractions, pay attention to bright or colourful objects which may divert your audience. Frame your image so the brightest colours or lights are in the shot area that is the focus of attention.

Bright and/or colourful objects have a dramatic effect on the composition of your shots. They must be considered as having additional "visual weight" compared to the darker areas of your image.

If you place a dark subject next to a bright object, your viewers will look at the brighter area even though the dark subject is the main center of interest.

Illusion of Depth: We see the world in three dimensions -- height, width and depth. However film and video can only record and and reproduce height and width.

Therefore you must use some specific visual techniques to fool your viewer into thinking the flat image they are seeing has depth -- that it resembles three dimensional reality.

When shooting objects or people, place your camera at an angle so you see at least two sides in your viewfinder. For example, if you shoot a person head-on so you see only her front, the result is a perfect driver's license portrait.

However, turn the person turn 45 degrees to the right or left, so you see both the front and side of her body, and you create an illusion of anatomical depth which has far greater visual impact.

The same technique works for objects. Shoot a building head-on and its a flat rectangle. However, move the camera so you see the front and a side, or the front and the top, and you create an illusion of depth for your viewers. RETURN TO DEPTH OF FIELD

Height of Subject and Camera: The point-of-view (POV) created by the height difference between the camera lens and the subject makes a definite impression on your audience.

If the camera is higher than the subject, the POV creates a feeling of inferiority, helplessness or isolation between the viewer and the subject.

On the other hand, if the camera POV is lower than the subject, the audience will the subject as superior, strong and overwhelming.

Keep the camera even with the subject's eye level to create a neutral POV. The audience and the subject are "eye-to-eye." They are equals. Any camera POV above or below the subject's eye-line changes how the audience interprets what they see.

Whether you shoot a seven foot tall tennis player or an 18 inch high cocker spaniel, place your camera at the subject's eye level to remain emotionally neutral and to let the viewer see reality from the subject's POV, not your's.

Backgrounds: It may seem obvious, but everything behind your subject will end up in the background of your image. An effective background is one that stays where it belongs -- behind the subject.

A good background is either neutral or it compliments, enhances and adds information about the foreground subject. A poor background overwhelms your subject by pushing forward into the shot and drawing attention away from the main part of the image.

Background objects like phone poles, street signs, billboards, trees seem to grow out of your subject's head if she stands directly between them and the camera.

You can solve most background problems by moving the subject, the camera or changing the angle of view. Always check the distracting background details. You can't get rid of them after the shot has been recorded.

Frame Within a Frame (Aspect Ratio): Every TV image, regardless of picture tube size, always has a fixed 3x4 rectangular shape. And if HDTV becomes widespread, high definition video images will have a fixed 9x116 aspect ratio
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Unlike still photographers who can turn their camera sideways for vertical compositions, you are stuck using TV's horizontal 3x4 rectangle for every shot.

However, you can create different frame shapes by proper placement of objects in your shot. Blocking out parts of your shot with doorways, windows, posts, buildings, fences, a person's shoulder, etc. changes the video 3x4 rectangle into a square, diamond, triangle, diagonal, circle or other geometrical shapes.

Frame-within-a frame composition strengthens the illusion of depth and gives your images more visual impact.

Composition Guidelines: Your major goal as a videographer is to create images which will make your audience want to continue watching your program.

Since most video productions are about ordinary people doing ordinary things with ordinary objects, it is only your creative skill and talent which can make such events seem extra-ordinary and worth a viewer's time.

The most common mistake videographers make is to only shoot from the most convenient or accessible location and POV. Lazy video- graphers never get to use their full creative potential to create images of visual impact and emotional power.

A better approach is to look at the event from the intended audience's perspective. Choose compositions which satisfy your intended viewer's interest.

For example, if I shoot an evening news feature about a new dance fad, most of my footage might be full body shots of the dancers. However, if I was shooting a "How-To" dance instructional video , most of my shots would be closeups showing the positioning and movement of the dancers' feet.

Whenever you shoot video always ask: "Who is the intended audience and what do they want to see?" The answers will guide your choice of camera angles, lens setting, POV, etc.

Walk around the location. Watch the action from potential camera positions. As you move around, pick the parts of the event which your audience will find the most interesting. As you experiment with different POV's, look for high and low angles, framing possibilities, annoying backgrounds, clashing colours, bright lights.

Use your eyes, not the camera to find your best angles. If you use the viewfinder to search out shots you will drain your camera's battery and miss potentially exciting footage.

You don't have to accept the location as you find it. Don't be afraid to ask permission to move furniture, objects, or people if the change gives better results. Most video production participants eagerly co-operate if you tell them their efforts will add quality to the project.

After your pre-production planning and arranging, take another look at your location. Remember your brain ignores distracting backgrounds, reflections, and other visual clutter, but the camera records everything.

Composition Rules:

No rule is absolute. But have a good reason to break it.

Fill the entire screen with important subject matter. Empty space is wasted space.

Avoid tilted horizontal and vertical lines.

Movement or bright lights in the background are distracting.

If the background is a problem during shooting, it will be worse for your audience. Move the camera or the subject before taping.

When shooting people, place the subject's eyes one-third down from the top of the frame no matter the type of shot.

Action or line of sight towards frame right should be positioned frame left and vice-versa for "nose room."

Avoid big spaces between people or objects. Shoot people in full or three-quarter profile to let viewers see both eyes

Create illusion of depth by having objects in foreground, middle ground and background.

Always zoom in to full telephoto to adjust focus.

Allow for image cutoff around frame edges. Keep the important parts of the image towards frame center.